MADISON BUTCHKO writes about the Mogao Caves, focusing on Cave 17, which holds a vast collection of murals, manuscripts, and artifacts that illuminate the rich cultural exchanges along the Silk Road.
The Mogao Caves hold and preserve the largest quantity of wall paintings and murals over an extensive 1,000-year period. There is a variety of organic and inorganic paint materials utilized on the wall murals and paintings. There have been fewer organic colorants detected, except for lac and indigo. In regards to the wall painting behind Hong Bian’s statue, the yellow pigments on the upasika, a Buddhist follower, consist of orpiment and goethite. The light and medium green foliage and leafing involve malachite and atacamite.
The wall mural in Cave 16 that concealed Cave 17 implemented a painting technique that is “composed of multiple layers applied to the conglomerate rock support,” which includes plaster layers, glaze, sealants, and surface ornamentation. The same technique is used on the painting behind the Hong Bian statue and is uniformly seen throughout the caves. The basic main components of these plaster layers are local earth deposits, sand, and plant fibers. The local earth deposits consist of “Dengban soil,” which is from the nearby rivers, containing illite and chlorite to create a clay-like material. There are typically two layers of this plaster applied onto the walls to create a base for the paintings. To preserve the final painting, a fine plaster is applied to act as a sealant, usually created from animal glue and alum.
Amongst the manuscripts, Aurel Stein found a mass of paintings in a delicate condition, dating back to the Tang Dynasty. These “exquisite paintings on silk and large embroidery pictures” drew great interest to Stein, who then negotiated with Wang to buy the manuscripts and paintings. Due to Stein’s excavations and explorations, many of the paintings described below are still a part of the British Museum of Art and the International Dunhuang Project at the British Library to this day.
One of the most notable silk paintings discovered by Stein, the piece dates back to the late 9th century AD, Tang Dynasty. The Yinlu pu, meaning ‘Bodhisattva Guide of Souls’ in Mahayana Buddhism, depicts a Bodhisattva guiding an elegant lady (seen in the bottom right), which symbolizes reaching of the future paradise. Yinlu pu is a popular theme of artwork in the Tang dynasty and the early Song. Ksitigarbha is the Bodhisattva that is traditionally depicted to guide souls, carrying a staff. The Bodhisattva is the center of the painting, dressed in ornate and jeweled robes, much akin to the style of Indian Buddhist aristocrats. Here, the Bodhisattva holds a lotus flower and a white banner with tail streamers. The smaller woman in the corner is seatedon clouds to the Pure Land (淨土), which is drawn in the top left corner. She is evidently of status due to the gold and silver combs, pinned in her hair, and her dress of luxurious silken red aristocratic gowns. The scene is not taking place on Earth, as noted by the mystical red clouds in the background, and is symbolizing her journey beyond this Earth to Paradise. It is presumed the lady depicted has already died and is taking her next steps of rebirth. The final destination of Pure Land is surrounded by a plume of smoke, which one can achieve after a lifetime of fulfilling and adhering to Buddhist teachings and devotion. This painting signifies the transitional stage of death and rebirth, projecting the Mahayana belief that through proper guidance and lifetime practice anyone can achieve a rebirth at the Pure Land.
Printed artworks are evidence of complex and revolutionary technological advancements, including Chinese paper-making and block printing. Rag paper made of hemp fibers collected from Cave 17 by Stein is evidence of the oldest paper remains in existence, dating to the second century AD. The latest artworks date from the fifth to the eleventh century, and these are a result of complex and improved papermaking. The paper paintings and scrolls are made with “hemp, paper mulberry, and other raw fibers to produce a strong, thin and smooth writing surface.” One of the greatest printed examples found is the Diamond Sutra found in Cave 17. Additionally, evidence of block printing is indicated by paintings: “print (scroll); 印刷品 (Chinese)” and “print; 印刷品 (Chinese).” Small stamps constructed out of clay and wood were implemented to produce multiple bodhisattvas. Many scrolls are woodblock printed, like print; 印刷品 (Chinese), including an inscription and a corresponding image. Printmaking was a popular and encouraged practice among Buddhists because of the efficiency and speed of creating many copies of Buddhist images and texts to disseminate.
Ksitigarbha is one of the four great Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhist sects in China and Japan who vowed to save the entire underworld before attaining Buddhahood. Here, Kditigarbha is depicted in this silk painting which tells the concept of a soul’s judgment. Produced in 926-975, this painting features Ksitigarbha in the center, holding a flaming jewel, called a cintamani. On either side of him are the Ten Kings of Hell, who are sitting behind a desk with their accompanying magistrates. On their desks, there are open scrolls with writing and ink stones on the side. Yama is the fifth king and is differentiated from the other kings by wearing a mian. The other kings wear civilian caps or winged caps that look like armor. Directly in front of Ksitigarbha stands the monk, Daoming, with both his lion and “an ox-headed jailor leading the soul of a man wearing a cangue.” The adjacent mirror reflects the man’s evil actions that accumulate in his soul. The example shown in the mirror is the man slaying an ox, which represents his wrongdoings and sins. The painting of this scene symbolizes the long journey of judgment that a soul must face after death. Judgment for one’s actions in their life is judged by the Ten Kings, which occurs on the seventh day after death. The soul must face forty-nine days in an intermediate state before coming to Yama, which is the Judge of the Dead. Here, the fate of the soul will be decided along with its Ways of Rebirth. This specific journey after death is written in the “Apocryphal sutra of the Ten Kings” (AD 903) where the soul passes through ten atmospheres on its path to rebirth. The man, viewing his sins in the mirror, is currently undergoing this process of judgment upon his soul.
The Library Cave is located by the northern wall, which is adjacent to the hallway of Cave 16. One of the biggest questions and debates surrounds why this small cave was deliberately sealed, which remains a mystery after over a century since the cave’s discovery. Scholars, such as Sha Wutian, a Professor at Shaanxi Normal University, believe that the murals adorning Cave 16 are a major reason why the Library Cave was sealed. The reconstruction of the topmost layer of Cave 16’s corridor which leads to Cave 17 indicates the date of the closure of Library Cave, because the mural was completed in order to conceal the entrance to the Library Cave.
Chinese historian at Peking University, Rong Xinjiang, argues that the reason for the Library Cave’s closure was “to avoid persecution by the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the later period of the Cao Guiyijun.” Khotan, a Buddhist kingdom, fell to the Islamic Kara-Khanid Khanate in the year 1006. The kingdom of Khotan was a strong supportive ally and contributor to the Mogao Caves, and the monks of the Mogao Caves would have planned the concealment because of lost support from the Khotanese, and the upcoming destruction of non-Islamic monuments from the Kara-Khanid Khanate. The closing of the Library Cave is estimated to be just before 1035, which is in conjunction with the conquests of the region.
The discovery of the Library Cave, Cave 17 at the Mogao Caves, has provided unparalleled insight into the cultural, religious, and intellectual exchanges that flourished along the Silk Road. Its vast collection of manuscripts, artifacts, and religious paintings reveals the region’s role as a vibrant hub where diverse cultures, languages, and beliefs converged. The materials from Cave 17 highlight the importance of Dunhuang as a center for Buddhist thought while also showcasing the complex cross-cultural interactions that shaped ancient Asia. The preservation of this cave, both in its original sealing and through modern efforts, speaks to the fragility of cultural heritage and the ongoing need for its protection. While the removal of many of these treasures by early Western explorers like Marc Aurel Stein has fueled ethical debates about the ownership and conservation of such artifacts, the cave’s contents remain invaluable for understanding the historical scope of global exchange. Cave 17 stands not only as a key to unraveling the Silk Road’s legacy but also as a reminder of the critical importance of safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations.
Madison Butchko is a senior at Yale University pursuing a B.S. in Physics and a B.A. in East Asian Studies with a concentration on China. Her research spans topics from Asian American representation in media to examining China’s social issues within its cultural and historical contexts. Originally adopted from China, her personal connection to the country sparked her academic interest, which deepened after briefly serving in the Air Force, where she became intrigued by the geopolitical landscape. Fluent in Chinese and currently learning Japanese, she continues to explore international relations and cultural dynamics in East Asia.
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